Joseon (1392 - 1897)

Well I happen to particularly favor ancient history, so while there is a wealth of information available on the Joseon Dynasty I am only going to dedicate two posts to this subject.  I know, I know.  The Joseon Dynasty has the clearest application to today's society because many of the things that we currently associate with Korea originated during this time period.  But there simply isn't the excitement that exists in some of the other periods.  At least from my perspective.  I will be dedicating a post to the Imjin War, which I found to be particularly interesting, but other than that I am simply going to be skimming over this nearly 500 year chapter in Korean history.  By all means, do some further investigation if you feel so inclined, but if you're really looking for good Korean history take a look at the Three Kingdoms Period.

Heungnyemun ( 흥녜문 ) at Gyeongbokgung ( 경복궁 )

Establishment and Consolidation of Royal Power
We left off with the coup d'état initiated by Yi Seong-gye at the end of the Goryeo Dynasty.  This coup occurred in 1388 and while Yi assumed power following this event, he did not officially proclaim himself to be king until 1392.  Even after he officially took the throne he still intended to maintain the capital in its current location and continue the legacy of the Goryeo Dynasty.  Unfortunately for Yi, the supporters of the Goryeo Dynasty proved to be too powerful for him to effectively rule, so in 1393 he decided to move the capital to Hanyang (modern-day Seoul) and declare a new dynasty called Kingdom of Great Joseon ( 대조선국 ).  This name of course originated from the first dynasty to rule on the Korean peninsula (which we now call Gojoseon, or Old Joseon, to differentiate between the two dynasties).

The movement of the capital allowed Yi Seong-gye to rule more effectively without the interference of supporters of the old dynasty.  But who exactly supported Yi Seong-gye?  After all, Yi Seong-gye did not have a powerful family background upon which he could fall back on.  He had succeeded in gaining power through military prowess, not wealth or lineage.  The up and coming literati class would prove to be Yi's biggest supporters and one of the main reasons that he was able to maintain his grip on power.  The literati (who were briefly discussed in a Goryeo post) made up what was known as the yangban ( 양반 ) class, or the ruling class, and were appointed to the civil and military positions in the government. 

While Yi was willing to submit to the literati's authority and carry out their wishes, conflict arose over the subject of appointing a successor to the throne.  Yi Bang-won, who was one of Yi Seong-gye's sons, had contributed the most effort in helping his father rise to power.  However, Yi Bang-won wished to assert more royal authority and was therefore rejected as a successor by the literati in favor another of Yi Seong-gye's sons.  Yi Bang-won reacted by storming the palace in 1398 and killing the crown prince and the supporters who had rejected his bid for the kingship.  In response to this event, Yi Seong-gye immediately abdicated the throne in favor of another of his sons, King Jeongjong ( 정종 ), but Yi Bang-won had succeeded in obtaining true authority over of the kingdom.  After another conflict between Yi Seong-gye's sons, King Jeongjong voluntarily abdicated the throne to Yi Bang-won, who would come to be known as King Taejong ( 태종 ).

King Taejong was the first truly powerful monarch of the Joseon Dynasty.  One of the most important actions taken by Taejong in his quest to assert royal authority was his decree that all decisions passed by the State Council could only be enacted with the approval of the king.  He also executed and exiled many powerful government officials, some of whom had supported him and were even family members, in his effort to further establish royal authority.

Entrance to Gyeongbokgung

Yangban Society
As stated previously, the yangban consisted of the literati and while this initially presented the opportunity for more "commoners" to rise to the aristocratic ranks, it wouldn't be long before the yangban became a hereditary class like the aristocrats in previous kingdoms.  The yangban began to marry only amongst themselves and therefore effectively prevented any newcomers from joining their once open society.  One definite improvement in the aristocracy was the emphasis placed upon testing as a means of evaluating talent.  The literati's strong Confucian principles contributed to the belief that testing, rather than lineage, should be the primary requirement for advancement through the political system.  The yangban essentially controlled the government, economy, and culture of Korea at the beginning of the dynasty and despite attempts to diminish their power, they continued to hold a strong grip on the country.

Namsangol Folk Village - Many government officials lived in this area

Sejong the Great ( 세종대왕 )
King Sejong came to the throne under somewhat unusual circumstances, but in doing so he proved to be one of the most influential people in Korean history.  King Sejong was third son of King Taejong and as such was not originally intended to rise to the kingship.  However, King Sejong's older brothers recognized their younger sibling's extraordinary skill and voluntarily gave up the throne in favor of King Sejong.  The eldest brother deliberately had himself banished from the capital and the second brother became a monk.

King Sejong took the throne in 1418 and proved himself to be an effective military commander almost immediately in what was known as the Gihae Eastern Expedition ( 기해등정 ).  This campaign was focused on Tsushima Island, which is located between Japan and Korea and was a base for Japanese pirates.  The battle was a victory for Sejong and a treaty was signed after only three months.  King Sejong was also successful in a later battle with the Jurchens in Manchuria, but military conquest would prove to be the least of his accomplishments.

He is much more well known for his advancements in Korean society.  Sejong particularly advocated for advancements in science and technology.  Technological advancements during his reign were primarily attributed to Jang Yeong-sil, who was born into the lower class, but was able to ascend the social ladder as a result of his creativity.  Jang invented the water clock and was also responsible for advancements in astronomical clocks and sundials.  A farming guide specifically designed for Korean agriculture was also published during Sejong's reign.  Sejong even reformed the Korean calendar and medicine during his reign, both of which displayed significant breaks with Chinese culture.

However, the most influential development during Sejong's reign, and the reason that every Korean knows his name, was the creation of hangul ( 한굴 ), which translates to "great script", in 1446.  Up until this time Koreans had adapted Chinese characters to fit the sounds of their language in a system known as hanja ( 한자 ).  However, this system was extremely complex because it relied on Chinese characters and as a result the general population in Korea was illiterate.  Hangul on the other hand consists of only 28 letters and is extremely easy to learn.  Although the ruling class for the most part rejected hangul and continued to rely on hanja, the introduction of hangul to the masses sent Korean literacy rates through the roof.  It should also be noted that this development exhibits yet another break with Chinese tradition in Korea.

King Sejong died in 1450 and passed power to his eldest son, Munjong.  He is one of only two kings in Korean history (the other being Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo) to be posthumously honored with the title of "daewang" or "greatest of all kings". 

King Sejong ( 세종대왕 ) and Gwanghwamun ( 광화문 )

The Neo-Confucian Literati
The Sarim ( 사림 ), meaning "forest of scholars", and known as the Neo-Confucian Literati in English, was a group of yangban scholars who came from the countryside.  These men were much more idealistic and rigid in their belief in the Confucian principles than their yangban counterparts in the capital and as a result they were the focus of numerous purges at the end of the 15th century and the beginning of the 16th century.  The first two purges, which took place in 1498 and 1504, both occurred during the reign of Yeonsangun ( 연산군 ), who is generally considered to be the worst tyrant in Joseon's history.  Both purges were particularly gruesome with some people literally having their limbs torn off of their bodies.  Despite the grisly displays, any officials who did not attend the executions or who looked away during the executions were also subject to punishment.  The first purge was relatively small, as only six people were executed and about eighteen were exiled.  The second purge was much larger and affected over 200 officials as well as their families.  However, the second purge finally led to a plot to dethrone the despotic ruler, which was successfully carried out on September 2, 1506.

Two more significant literati purges occurred in 1519 and 1545, but these setbacks could not prevent the eventual rise of the Neo-Confucian Literati.  The reign of the pro-Confucian monarch Seonjo ( 선조 ), who ruled from 1567 until 1608, finally saw the Neo-Confucian Literati rise to the highest official positions and assume control over the government.



Foreign Relations
Relationships with foreign countries were for the most part successful endeavors during the first 200 years of the Joseon Dynasty.  Joseon's most important relationship was with the Ming Dynasty in China and Joseon worked very hard to ensure the continued success of the its pro-Ming foreign policy.  The Jurchens in Manchuria were a different story.  King Taejo expanded Joseon's borders to the land area of modern-day Korea, but this was obviously not without conflict from Joseon's northern neighbors.  The Jurchens repelled the Korean expansion efforts for a time, but King Sejong ultimately succeeded in solidifying Joseon's borders at the modern-day boundary of North Korea and China.  There were also minor disturbances with the Japanese during these first 200 years, but nothing that would reach the scale of what was to come.

The Japanese invaded Korea in 1592 and began what is known in Korea as the Imjin War.  I will be going into this event in more detail in my next post, but it basically resulted in seven years of fighting and the most damage done to Korea in its entire history.  Yes, it was even worse than the Korean War.

The Manchu invasions occurred during the 17th century and were a result of Joseon's pro-Ming policy.  The Manchus were at war with Ming and as a result felt threatened by Joseon's blatant support of their enemy.  The first invasion took place in 1627, but this event was short-lived and resulted in peaceful negotiations between the two sides.  However, when Joseon refused to recognize the Qing Dynasty's (the Manchus changed their name) suzerainty over Korea they responded by invading again in 1636.  This was also a short invasion, but it resulted in Joseon capitulating to Qing and becoming its tributary state.


Learning and Enlightenment
The problems started to mount up for Joseon and this resulted in the what is known as Silhak ( 실학 ), or practical learning.  The objective of this movement was to illuminate history, politics, economics, and social studies in an effort to create an ideal society.  Members of this movement put forth liberal ideas concerning government and social status, advocated for the advancement of technology, and even suggested that every peasant household should be guaranteed enough land to sustain itself.  The study of history and science were also of primary importance during this time period.  Korean thinkers followed the same criteria as their European counterparts in that no conclusion could be reached unless it was substantiated by facts. 


Seohak ( 서학 ), which translates as "Western learning", was the Korean name for the spread of western technology, philosophy, and Catholicism around the Korean peninsula.  Catholicism arrived in Korea during the 18th century and enjoyed moderate success, but ultimately underwent a persecution in 1801.  Western technology was much more willingly utilized and even welcomed by Joseon.

Donghak ( 동학 ), which translates as "Eastern learning", arose in response to Seohak.  I discussed this movement in my post on New Religions.  The movement began with a man named Choe Jeu ( 최제우 ) in 1860, whose goal was to combine the best ideas of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism in an effort to oppose Seohak.  In reality, the movement also incorporated beliefs of Catholicism and shamanism as well, but it still caught on nonetheless.  The government did a pretty good job of initially suppressing the movement by arresting and executing Choe Jeu in in 1863.  This of course sent many followers into hiding, but it wasn't long before the movement rose again and even become accepted by the royalty.   

It is obvious from the these three movements that people were extremely fed up with the system in Joseon and were desperately searching for alternatives.  The Enlightenment in Korea arose as a result of contact with other countries.  It became obvious that western countries, as well as Japan, were far more advanced than Korea and that they therefore had two choices.  They could continue to try and fight the inevitable influx of change or learn from more advanced countries.  Korea found itself at a turning point in its history and had it decided to modernize more rapidly it may have been able to avoid its eventual fate as a Japanese colony.


The Daewongun ( 대윈군 ) and Isolationism
Gojong ( 고종 ), the last king of the Joseon Dynasty and the first emperor of the Korean Empire, assumed the throne in 1864 when he was only twelve years old and as a result his father, Heungseon Daewongun, held power until 1873.  The Daewongun, which translates to "prince of the great court", was an effective leader, but unfortunately was also a staunch isolationist.  It wasn't so much that he wanted to refuse foreign trade, but rather that he feared the dissemination of western ideas throughout Korean society.  And while he was initially tolerant of Catholicism, he launched a persecution in 1866 that directly led the French campaign against Korea of 1866, or Byeongin yangyo ( 병인양요 ).  The French were forced to withdraw, but this was only the first of many confrontations with western nations.  Korea became involved in the Shinmiyangyo ( 신미양요 ), which translates to the "Western disturbance of 1871", when Joseon attacked U.S. ships.  The U.S. responded with force and was successful militarily, but Joseon still refused to negotiate with the U.S., which was the ultimate goal of the mission.  If anything, Korea became even more isolationist following this incident. 

Gojong moved to Deoksugung ( 덕수궁 ) from Gyeongbokgung after the assassination of his wife

End of Isolationism and Beginning of Decline
King Gojong finally took control of the country in 1873 and this inevitably led to the end of Joseon's policy of Isolationism.  The Un'yo Incident occurred in 1876 in which the Japanese bated Korean defenders into firing upon a ship and then used the aggression as a pretext for a conflict with Korea.  The Japanese were successful in the conflict and it resulted in the Treaty of Ganghwa later that year, which stipulated that Korea must open three ports for trade with Japan.  This event opened the door for the western powers to also begin trade with Korea. 

Korea essentially went on to became a land grab for foreign powers who were all vying for suzerainty over the country.  The countries involved included Japan, China, Russia, the United States, France and England.  However, it would ultimately be Japan that would arise victoriously from the struggle.  This was a turbulent time period both in and around Korea as Koreans fought to maintain their independence and foreign powers fought to take control.  Gojong obviously felt the ever-increasing presence of these powers, in particular the Japanese, and desperately sought a way to maintain his country's independence.  His answer was the establishment of the Great Han Empire in 1897.  And while the new title sounded impressive it unfortunately ended up simply being a matter of semantics instead of in any way actually changing Korea's status on the world stage.

Goryeo: Military and Mongols (1170 - 1392)

The aristocratic fat cats were about to pay a dire price for their disregard, and in many cases flat out disrespect, for the military officers of their day.  Military commanders and civil officials had previously held a similar social standing, but the rise of the aristocratic order had placed the military officials in an inferior position to their aristocratic counterparts.  Civil officials slowly began to fill military positions at the beginning of the twelfth century, but it wasn't until the reign of Uijong ( 의종 ), who ruled from 1146 until 1170, that the rage of the military finally reached its breaking point.  There were two particularly insulting events which directly contributed to the military revolt.  The first of these occurred at Uijong's royal banquet in 1167.  At this event, Kim Donjung ( 김돈중 ), who was the son of the famous Kim Busik and an advisor to Uijong, set fire to the beard of an officer named Jeong Jungbu ( 정중부 ) and then proceeded to mock him and the entire military.  The final straw however, took place in 1170 when General Yi Soeung, who at the time was around 50 years old, was defeated in a martial arts competition by a much younger soldier.  Following the event, a civil official name Han Roe began to insult the general and even slapped him in the face.  Although the result was not immediate, this was the last in a series of disrespectful events that caused Jeong Jungbu, Yi Uibang ( 이의방 ), Yi Go ( 이고 ) and other military officials to rise up against the government.


Military Rule
"Death to all who but wear the civil official headdress!"
This was the rallying cry that united the military in their opposition to the civil officials.  It goes without saying that the unified military force was easily able to massacre the defenseless civil officials (Kim Donjung and Han Roe of course met their end).  One of the remaining aristocrats attempted to restore Uijong to power (he had been sent into exile following the rebellion) in 1173, but this attempt failed and resulted in the death of Uijong and another purge of civil officials.

Military Might
The three leaders of the military revolt placed Myeongjong ( 명종 ) on the throne following the rebellion, but he was merely a puppet and the real power was held by the military.  Unfortunately, as is usually the case with military regimes, the only thing that mattered during this time period was military might.  This resulted in a very tumultuous time period in which power constantly shifted amongst the most powerful military officials.  The first of the leaders to go was Yi Go, who was killed by Yi Uibang in his attempt to garner power.  However, Yi Uibang was later killed by supporters of Jeong Jungbu, who was then later killed by General Gyung Daeseung ( 귱대승 ) in 1179.  Gyung Daesung became ill and died in 1183 and power then passed to a former slave named Yi Uimin ( 이의민 ).  Yi Uimin proved to be a ruthless dictator and was finally killed in 1196.  Yi Uimin's death, and the subsequent rise to power of Choe Chungheon ( 최충헌 ), finally brought an end to nearly three decades of political turmoil in Goryeo

Reform
Choe Chungheon may have brought some order and stability to Goryeo, but he by no means was a benevolent ruler.  He disposed of all who disobeyed his orders and asserted his supremacy over the throne by placing four different kings upon it.  It should be noted that he did not do away with the monarchy, but simply removed all of its power and took it for himself.  Choe also focused his attention on two other power struggles at the time.  He asserted his power over the Buddhist monks by forcing them out of the capitol and destroying any of those who opposed with his powerful military.  He also subdued many peasant uprisings through the use of military force or in some instances political appeasement.  Choe's power was later solidified by Choe Chungheon's son, Choe U ( 최우 ).  Choe U succeeded in creating a personal military and elite patrols to safeguard Choe's hold on power.  He also created political offices through which he could wield power over the throne.

Uprising
One of the unintended consequences of the military revolt was the spread of insurgency throughout the peninsula.  Social order had prevailed in Korea since time memoriam, but the rise of military officials to the highest government offices introduced doubts to this previously hierarchical society.  If the military officials could ascend the social ladder, why not the peasants?  Peasant uprisings began in 1172, but it wasn't until 1193 that the movement really caught fire.  Rebel bands of peasants were a harsh reality for the new military regime during the end of the twelfth and the beginning of the thirteenth centuries.  And while the Choe regime succeeded for the most part in subduing these rebellions (some of which numbered in the tens of thousands), it became evident during this time period that the previously rigid social structure in Korea had become an artifact of a bygone era. 


Mongol Invasions
Working Together
Well this didn't last too long, but Goryeo and the Mongols actually joined forces for a short period of time in their mutual quest to destroy the Khitan.  The Mongols succeeded in forcing the Khitan into Goryeo territory and it was at this point that Goryeo and the Mongols teamed up.  The Khitan eventually fell to the Mongol-Goryeo alliance in 1219.  This however would prove to be the first and last cooperative effort between these two nations.

Resistance
The Mongols began to demand tribute from Goryeo after the defeat of the Khitan and the increasingly unstable relationship between the two countries finally came to a head when the Mongols launched their first invasion in 1231.  The two countries came to an agreement and ended the first invasion, but the agreement stipulated that Mongol governors would be placed in the northwest portion of Goryeo.  However, Choe U decided to resist the Mongols and moved the capitol to Ganghwa Island.  The Mongols were not very happy about this move and subsequently launched five more invasions of Goryeo over the next thirty years.

The Peasants
The military was not the only body resisting the Mongol invasions.  The peasants also rose up in rebellion against their invaders.  And it was the peasants who bore the brunt of the Mongol's wrath.  While Goryeo's leaders enjoyed lives of luxury and safety on Ganghwa Island, the peasants fought tooth and nail for their country and were slaughtered by the Mongols as a result. 

End of Military Rule
The Choe military regime was completely satisfied resisting the Mongols from their stronghold on Ganghwa Island.  In contrast, the civil officials advocated for capitulation.  The last of the Choe dictators, Choe Ui ( 최의 ), was assassinated in 1258.  Some advocates of resistance remained for the next twelve years, but the policy of resistance was for the most part abandoned and in 1270 Goryeo returned its capital to Gaeseong and completely succumbed to Mongol rule.

Mongol Control
Yuan's (the Mongols named themselves the Yuan Dynasty) first order of business for its newly acquired vassal state was to utilize Goryeo's location and military strength as a springboard for an invasion of Japan.  The Mongols launched campaigns into Japan in 1274 and 1281, but both ended in failure.  Goryeo was allowed to maintain its sovereignty and continue the line of the royal house, but all of the monarchs during this period were ultimately controlled by Yuan.  In addition to asserting its dominance over the royal house, Yuan also demanded a substantial amount of tribute from Goryeo.  Yuan's demands obviously led to a rift between the two countries and Goryeo jumped at its first opportunity to rid itself of Mongol control.


The End is Near
Decline of Yuan
Goryeo's opportunity to expel Yuan's influence from the peninsula arose during the reign of King Gongmin ( 공민왕 ), who ruled from 1351 until 1374.  The upstart Ming dynasty had succeeded in forcing the Mongols to retreat to the north and Gongmin used this opportunity to remove Yuan's influence on the peninsula, purge the government of any Yuan supporters, and regain the land lost during the Mongol invasions.  These changes opened the door for a large scale shift in Goryeo's government.  After all, the royal house had not held any actual authority for almost 200 years.  Yi Seong-gye ( 이성계 ) appeared to be just the man for the job. 

Yi Seong-gye
Yi Seong-gye began his political career as a strong military commander responsible for warding off the incessant attacks of Japanese marauders.  His entrance into politics came about as a result of King U's ( 우왕 ) decision to invade the Ming dynasty.  Yi Seong-gye opposed the decision, but was entrusted with control of the military campaign.  However, instead of following orders, Yi Seong-gye decided to reverse course and instead attack the capital, overthrow the king, and seize power for himself.  Although it would be another three years until the official establishment of the Joseon Dynasty, for all practical purposes this event brought an end to the Goryeo Dynasty.


Culture
Emergence of the Literati
A new class named the literati (similar to the term "scholar"), which would eventually become the dominant social class in Korea, emerged during this time period.  The literati was composed of educated men who supported an examination system as opposed to the traditional system of advancement based upon lineage.  Many of these men also came from outside the capitol and owned small portions of land. 

Neo-Confucianism and the Decline of Buddhism
Confucianism and Buddhism had previously succeeded in coexisting on the Korean peninsula for hundreds of years, but the advent of Neo-Confucianism during the fourteenth century put an end to the previously peaceful relationship between the two modes of thought.  Neo-Confucianism attempted to explain the origins of man and of the universe, which was an area of thought previously reserved for Buddhism.  Similar to the modern conflict between science and religion, this discrepancy between Neo-Confucianism and Buddhism eventually led to a decline in Buddhism on the peninsula.

Writing
Kim Busik's compilation of Korean history, which was known as the Samguk sagi and released in 1145, ignited a fascination with Korean history.  As a result, many history books were written during this period.  The most notable of these is the Samguk yusa, which like the Samguk sagi focuses on the Three Kingdoms Period, but rather than focusing on "facts", it instead investigates myths and beliefs during the time period. 

Art
The most notable artistic achievements from this time period are the wooden structures.  Not because they were particularly exquisite, but because they are the oldest extant examples of wooden architecture in Korea.  The oldest of these can be found in modern-day Andong.  Wood has proven itself to be a very ineffective medium in Korea due to numerous invasions, which are the main reason that wooden buildings from previous time periods no longer exist.

Technology
Movable metal type was invented in Goryeo, which obviously paved the way for the widespread publication of books.  The other major advance in technology was the introduction of gunpowder, which was passed to Goryeo by way of the Chinese.

Goryeo: Royal Authority and Aristocratic Control (936 - 1170)

We left off with Wang Geon ( 왕곤 ), later to be known as Taejo ( 태조 ), conquering Baekje and accepting the surrender of Silla in his quest to unite the Korean Peninsula.  The next phase of Korean history takes place under the reign of the Goryeo Dynasty, which ruled the Korea from 936 until 1392.  I am going to split this history into two parts, the first of which will cover Goryeo's history until 1170, which is the year that a military revolt took place within the empire.  So without further ado, let's delve into the first 234 years of Goryeo's unification of Korea.


The Growth of Royal Authority
The collapse of centralized power ultimately led to the undoing of the Silla Kingdom and Wang Geon was determined to avoid Silla's fate.  He established marriage ties with over twenty gentry families around Goryeo's capital of Songak and also provided positions for nobles from the fallen kingdoms of Balhae, Later Baekje, and Silla.  Wang Geon died in 943 and the years following his death were turbulent times marked by the Wang Gyu ( 왕규 ) rebellion and the extremely short reigns of the next two monarchs.  Clans were still very powerful at this point and it would take an equally powerful ruler to break the clans' hold on the Korean peninsula.

Gwangjong ( 광종 ) took the throne in 949 and began his attempt at establishing royal authority by enacting the Slave Review Act, which decreased the number of slaves owned by military commanders and local gentry and in turn also decreased their power.  He also created a civil service examination, which promoted people based upon skill rather than lineage.  He then began to call Gaegyeong (the name of the capital at that time) the "Imperial Capital" and the terms "Your Imperial Majesty" and "High King" came into use.  Understandably, the previously powerful military commanders and civil officials objected to these reforms and the end result of this discontent was a merciless purge by Gwangjong.  Anyone who refused to submit to royal authority met their ultimate demise.  Gwangjong's successor, Gyeongjong, also attempted to strengthen the throne by establishing the Stipend Land Law, but it would not be long before the Aristocrats fought back.


Establishment of the Aristocratic Order
Aristocrats still held a very important place in Goryeo's society and they were constantly trying to improve their social position through the use of marriage ties.  Marriage ties allowed families, in particular the the Kim family from Ansan and the Yi family from Inchon, to dominate power for extended periods of time.  The Kim family held power through marriage ties to the royal family from 1009 until 1046 and the Yi family was a political force from 1046 until 1122.

This inevitably led to a new political structure which was completed in 1076 and of course placed more emphasis on the aristocracy.  There were numerous political offices created for the aristocracy, the most interesting of which was the Surveillance Chancellery, whose primary responsibility was restraining royal authority. 


Goryeo-Khitan Wars
The Liao Dynasty, made up of the Khitan people, was located in Manchuria and began near the end of the Balhae Kingdom in 916.  As stated in the post on the Later Three Kingdoms, Balhae was defeated by the Khitan in 926 and Khitan went on to become the chief opponents to Goryeo in the early years of its empire. 

The First Goryeo-Khitan War
The first conflict occurred in 993 when the Khitan invaded Goryeo with 60,000 troops.  The conflict was short-lived and the Khitan withdrew its forces when Goryeo agreed to end its alliance with the Song Dynasty in China.


The Second Goryeo-Khitan War
The Khitan attacked again in 1010 and succeeded in occupying the Goryeo capital and forced King Hyeonjong to flee.  However, the Khitan became fearful that their supply lines would be disrupted and decided to once again withdraw their troops.

The Third Goryeo-Khitan War
The final attack by the Khitan occurred in 1018 after Goryeo's refusal to cede territory and submit to their rule.  The Khitan attacked with approximately 100,000 troops, but Goryeo countered with over twice that amount.  The Khitan suffered a significant defeat and a peace treaty was eventually signed four years later.


Problems with the Aristocratic Order
The aristocracy continued to consolidate power for the next hundred years, but power struggles arose amongst the ruling clans.  The rule of Injong ( 인종 ), which lasted from 1122 until 1146, was particularly marred by these power struggles.  The first man to vie for power was named Yi Ja-gyeom, who was the father of two of Injong's queens.  He held political power during the beginning of Injong's rule, but ultimately desired to usurp the throne.  He attempted a moderately successful coup in 1126, but Injong was able to regain power in 1127 and Yi Ja-gyeom was banished from the capital.

The second revolt during Injong's reign occurred in 1135 and was led by a Buddhist monk named Myo Cheong.  Myo Cheong had previously advised Injong to move the capital to modern-day Pyongyang in an attempt to seize the power of the throne.  He also wanted Injong to attack the Jurchens (who were located in Manchuria), but Injong refused and as a result Myo Cheong raised an army in Pyongyang and created his own state.  The insurrection was short-lived, but it once again demonstrated the decrease in royal authority.

The increase in aristocratic power resulted in a great divide between civil officials and military commanders.  The civil officials lived lives of luxury, while military officers were repeatedly forced to suffer indignities, usually at the hands of civil officials.  This situation of course could not last and the military commanders finally revolted in 1170.  The military was united in the cause and civil officials were massacred during the uprising.  Some civil officials later attempted to regain power, but the damage had been done and control of the Goryeo Kingdom had officially been passed to the military.


Culture and Society
Buddhism
The Seon School and the Gyo School were the two primary modes of thought within Buddhism during this time period.  The Cheontae School later arose as a way to reconcile the differences between Seon and Gyo.  Despite the rise of Confucianism during the Goryeo Dynasty, it remained a thoroughly Buddhist state.

Coffin with the four guardian deities

Confucianism
Confucian ideology prospered under aristocratic rule and the introduction of state examinations provides ample evidence of the power that Confucianism wielded over Goryeo.  This time period was marked by a more rational approach to contemporary problems.  Confucianism would one day be used to suppress Buddhism, but during this time period both thought processes coexisted. 

Literature
The most impressive work produced was the Buddhist Tripitaka, which consisted of Buddhist scriptures printed on woodblocks.  This project was undertaken as a prayer for the purpose of bringing an end to the Khitan invasions.  Unfortunately, the original Tripitaka was destroyed during the Mongol invasions during the thirteenth century, but it was later remade and the extant version is generally regarded as the finest collection of Buddhist scriptures in East Asia.

Art
Goryeo's celadon ware is the finest example of the dynasty's cultural achievements.  Goreyo celadon was utilized to make numerous items and was influenced primarily by natural themes.  The celadon ware is said to display Goryeo's appreciation for elegance, while also expressing its grace and charm.

Goryeo celadon

Education
A huge change in the educational system took place with the establishment of the National University in 992.  The university consisted of six colleges and the entrance requirements for each college were dependent upon lineage.  University College, High College and Four Portals College emphasized study of the Chinese tradition and were the most exclusive schools.  The Law College, the College of Calligraphy, and the College of Accounting were available to the lower levels of the aristocracy and to the commoners.  While this was a huge step forward for the educational system, it was not until the reign of Injong (1122-1146) that schools were set up outside of the capital and education started to become more widespread.

Later Three Kingdoms Period (892 - 936)

The decentralization of Unified Silla, combined with the rise of powerful castle lords and numerous peasant uprisings, eventually led to Silla's inability to control such a vast kingdom.  Two kingdoms arose out of these peasant rebellions as successor states to Baekje and Goguryeo and in turn challenged Silla's authority on the peninsula.

Silla ( 신라 )

Queen Jinseong ( 진성여왕 ) ruled during the time of forced tax collections and peasant rebellions in Silla.  She was also the first ruler of Silla during the time period known to historians as the Later Three Kingdoms Period.  She abdicated the throne in 897 and died shortly thereafter.  King Hyogang ( 효강왕 ) succeeded her to the throne, but was unable to do anything to quell the ongoing turmoil on the Korean peninsula.  It is said that he became an alcoholic and completely neglected his duties at the end of his reign.  King Gyeongmyeong ( 경명왕 ) then unsuccessfully sought help from Tang and the Silla capital of Gyeongju was eventually sacked by Hubaekje in 927.  King Gyeongsun ( 경순왕 ) was placed on the throne after the fall of Gyeongju, but he held no real power and the only notable aspect of his reign is his surrender to Goryeo in 935.  Thus, the mighty kingdom of Silla finally came to an end after 993 years of existence. 

I really got the sense that this had become a pitiful state by the time of the Later Three Kingdoms Period.  There are stories of Queen Jinseong bringing young boys into the palace for her own pleasure, King Hyogang succumbing to alcoholism and it is said that Hubaekje found King Gyeongae ( 경애왕 ) partying when they overtook the capital.  It just seems as though Silla had become completely corrupt and helpless during this time period and that the ruling class was either ignorant of or unconcerned with their impending doom.

Despite the sad state of affairs in Late Silla, the Silla Kingdom is generally viewed as the progenitor of Korean culture.  Balhae certainly had some contributions, but the ruling class of Balhae had no significant impact in Goryeo's history.  In contrast, Goryeo saw itself as the successor to Silla and therefore adopted many cultural aspects of the Silla Kingdom.  I think it's hard to overstate the influence of a kingdom that existed on the Korean peninsula for almost 1,000 years.

Hubaekje ( 후백제 )

One of the leaders who arose during the peasant rebellions was named Gyeon Hwon ( 견훤 ).  Gyeon Hwon was actually born as a peasant and had successfully risen through the ranks of the Silla military due to his meritorious service.  In 892, during the time of widespread turmoil within the Silla Kingdom, Gyeon Hwon established a revival of the Baekje Kingdom at modern-day Gwangju with the objective of avenging the last king of Baekje, King Uija.  Gyeon Hwon officially adopted the name Hubaekje, or Later Baekje, in 900 and sought to expand his kingdom.  He accomplished this by establishing trade with China and battling with Silla and the other upstart kingdom of Hugoguryeo. He attacked multiple areas controlled by Silla, including the Silla capital in 927 and placed King Gyeongsun on the throne after King Gyeongae committed suicide. 

Despite initial success, Gyeon Hwon ultimately brought about his own downfall due to his tyrannical rule.  He also attempted to pass power to his fourth son, Geumgang, rather than his eldest son, Singeom.  Singeom plotted with two of his brothers to overthrow Gyeon Hwon and was successful in accomplishing this scheme in 935.  Gyeon Hwon responded by joining the Goryeo military and leading an attack against his former kingdom, which resulted in the end of Hubaekje in 936.  Gyeon Hwon also died that same year. 

Hugoguryeo ( 후고구려 ) / Majin ( 마진 ) / Taebong ( 태봉 )

Gung Ye ( 궁예 ) was born into the Silla royal family (it is believed he was the son of either King Heonan or King Gyeongmun), but a prophecy was made that predicted that he would bring an end to the Silla Kingdom.  Therefore, the king ordered to have him killed, but his mother conspired with her maid to save the child.  When the king's servants came to kill the child, she threw him from a second story window and the servants believed that he had fallen to his death.  However, the maid caught the child and raised him in secret.

Gung Ye joined the rebellions that were taking place around the country in 892 and eventually became one of the most powerful rebels.  He initiated a rebellion at Songak (modern-day Gaeseong) in 898 and eventually started the Hugoguryeo Kingdom in 901.  He changed the name of the kingdom to Majin in 904 and moved the capital.  It was from this capital that his kingdom began to rapidly expand and he eventually took over almost all of the land that had once been possessed by Silla.

However, like his counterpart in Hubaekje, Gung Ye was also a despotic ruler and he even went so far as to claim himself to be Maitreya Buddha to rationalize his rule.  He again changed the name of his kingdom, this time to Taebong, in 911.  Like many despotic rulers, Gung Ye was paranoid that the men around him were plotting against him and as a result he had many of his top officials, including his own family members, executed.  This sort of tyrannical rule simply could not last, and he was finally overthrown by his generals in 918 and killed by his own people as he was attempting to flee the kingdom. 

Goryeo ( 고려 )

Wang Geon ( 왕건 ) was born into a wealthy merchant family at Songak.  Wang Geon joined the rebellions against Silla and eventually joined forces with Gung Ye in his attempt to consolidate control of the rebel forces.  Wang Geon proved to be an extremely talented military commander and he was promoted to general in Gung Ye's army.  He led many successful military campaigns and it is said that the public liked him for his leadership and generosity.

A quick side note:  The source for much of this material is the Samguk Sagi, which was written during Goryeo rule.  Although the exact personalities of these individuals is unknown, this might explain why Gung Ye is presented as a merciless tyrant, while Wang Geon seems like a benevolent and strong leader. 

The four generals who overthrew Gung Ye decided to place Wang Geon, later to known as Taejo ( 태조 ), on the throne in 918.  Taejo changed the name of the state to Goryeo and moved the capital to his hometown of Songak, which provided him with a strong local power base.  Taejo decided to form a friendly relationship with Silla and instead focus his aggression against Hubaekje.  Taejo even personally led his troops into battle when Hubaekje invaded Silla and it is said that he won the admiration of the Silla people.

Unification

With Silla rendered helpless, the battle for the Korean peninsula was now a two man fight between Goryeo and Hubaekje.  These two originally appeared to be very evenly matched, but the turning point came at the battle of Gochang in 930 when the fight turned in favor of Goryeo.  Goryeo later defeated Hubaekje forces at Unju in 934 and this battle, combined with Hubaekje's internal turmoil, put victory within reach for Goryeo.  Silla's King Gyeongsun capitulated to Goryeo in 935 without resistance and as a result married one of Taejo's daughters and was appointed to the position of Inspector General of Gyeongju.  Gyeon Hwon then fled Hubaekje in 936 after his sons plotted against him and provided help to Taejo in defeating Hubaekje.  The decisive blow was brought against Hubaekje later that year and Singeom, the new leader of Hubaekje, surrendered to Goryeo control.  

Balhae had also been conquered in 926 and many members of the aristocracy fled to Goryeo.  Thus, the Korean peninsula had finally become truly unified for the first time in history and it would remain unified for over 1,000 years until the division of North and South Korea in 1948.  As for Goryeo's part in Korean history, the dynasty would rule until 1392 when the Joseon Dynasty took control of the peninsula.  I am planning on dedicating three posts to Goryeo's four and a half centuries of power. 

North South States Period: Balhae (698 - 926)

Balhae ( 발해 ) was a kingdom that ruled over the northern portion of Korea, the southern part of Manchuria and areas of eastern Russia.  Balhae grew to be an extremely large kingdom (it was actually the largest kingdom in Korean history) and historians have had some trouble classifying the kingdom because of the vast area over which it ruled.  The state has generally been viewed as a Korean state because it evolved out of Goguryeo, but Chinese scholars have recently attempted to make the argument that Balhae was a Chinese state because it was predominantly situated in modern-day China (they said the same thing about Goguryeo too) and contained a significant portion of Mohe (or Malgal) people from Manchuria.  However, the culture of Balhae shows clear ties to Goguryeo and Balhae's founder is generally considered to be of Goguryeo descent.  The common consensus among historians (outside of China) is that the people living in Balhae were culturally (although they were not all ethnically) Korean and that Balhae is therefore a Korean state.

Military History

Founding of Jin
Dae Joyeong ( 대조영 ), who later came to be known as King Go ( 고왕 ), was born in Goguryeo (although this is disputed by Chinese scholars who claim that he was born in Sumo Mohe) and served as a general before the fall of Goguryeo in 668.  He was forced to relocate with his father, named Dae Jung-sang ( 대중상 ), to a Tang province after the fall of Goguryeo.  However, his father took advantage of the chaos following a Khitan invasion in 696 to gather a group of followers, which consisted primarily of people from Goguryeo and Sumo Mohe (also known as the Malgal), and lead them to Dongmo Mountain ( 동모산 ).  Tang took notice of this movement and sent an army to fight these men in the Battle of Cheonmunryeong ( 촌문령 전두 ).  Dae Jung-sang and the leader of the Mohe people were both killed in the battle, but Dae Joyeong was able to successfully repel the attacks and later founded the state of Jin in 698 and named himself King.


Expansion
King Go changed the name of his state to Balhae in 712 and attempted to expand the influence of his fledgling kingdom.  King Go's son, King Mu, was responsible for the first significant expansion of the kingdom and as a result gained the contempt of both Tang and Silla.  The ire of these two kingdoms was countered by forming diplomatic ties with Japan and tribes in northern China in order to deter any aggression by either of these powers.  Balhae's third ruler, Emperor Mun ( 문왕 ), had the longest reign in Balhae's history and is credited with stabilizing and centralizing the rule of what he labeled as an empire.  He is credited with establishing friendly contact with neighboring states (specifically Tang) and encouraging cultural exchange between kingdoms.  He also moved the capital several times before his grandson, King Seong ( 성왕 ), permanently established its location at Sanggyeong in 793. 

Height of Power
The kingship went through a period of instability after the death of Emperor Mun as 6 rulers took the throne over the next 25 years.  However, Balhae would reach the apex of its territorial expansion when King Seon (  ) took the throne in 818.  He successfully subjugated tribes in all directions, with end result being a kingdom that stretched from the Liaodong Peninsula between China and Manchuria all the way up through modern-day Russia.  The authority of the throne was also increased during this time to successfully meet the demands of ruling over such a vast kingdom.

Decline and Fall
Unfortunately, I was unable to find any real information on the kings who ruled after King Seon.  The only ruler with any significant amount information is Dae Inseon ( 대인선 ), who was the last king of Balhae.  As a side note, all of the Balhae kings after King Seon do not use the term "wang", which means king, in their names.  They instead simply use the family name Dae, which was the name of the royal family.  But anyway, Dae Inseon ruled during a very turbulent time period in East Asia.  The Korean peninsula was undergoing a transformation from Silla's dominance to the rise of Goryeo, while Tang was dealing with multiple peasant revolts.  It is unknown what exactly caused the internal crumbling of Balhae, but two predominant theories exist.  The first has traditionally been accepted by historians and suggests that a rift occurred between the Goguryeo and Mohe populations.  A new theory has recently arisen to challenge this idea and suggests that instead a volcanic eruption was actually responsible for weakening the kingdom.  The exact details of Balhae's deterioration are unknown, but is known that the Khitan (then known as the Liao Dynasty, which was located in northern China) invaded in 925 and succeeded in conquering Balhae the following year.

Revival
The Khitan established the Dongdan Kingdom in Balhae territory, but the Balhae people were unwilling to accept their new rulers.  The Balhae citizens began rebelling against the Khitan almost immediately and a successor state named Later Balhae was established by the Dae royal house in 927.  This revival movement eventually transformed in the Jeongan Kingdom ( 정안국 ) when Yeol Manhwa ( 열만화 ) took control in 935.  The kingdom attempted to undermine the rule of the Khitan, but it was eventually defeated in 986.

Society

Government
Balhae developed a sophisticated system of government that was largely based upon the Tang Dynasty and contained three chancelleries and six ministries.  The government positions were predominantly made up of people with Goguryeo ethnicity, which ultimately led to the rift that occurred between the Goguryeo and Mohe populations.  Confucianism also played an important rule in the government structure, which is a marked difference from their Korean neighbors to the south.  An interesting aspect of the structure outside the capital was the existence of four secondary capitals (which is believed to have been influenced by Goguryeo).

Social Status
There were five classes in Balhae: the royal house, the aristocracy, the commoners, the lowborn, and the slaves.  As stated previously, the royal house and the aristocracy consisted of people from Goguryeo, while the Mohe made up much of the remaining three social classes. 

Economy
Domestic
Balhae's economy consisted of many different facets, which is to be expected from such a large country.  Agriculture (specifically dry crops), livestock, fishing, hunting and crafts all contributed to Balhae's economy.  There is also some dispute over the use of a currency system in Balhae, but it seems likely that currency and barter were used interchangeably.

Foreign 
As was the case with Goguryeo, Balhae lived on land that was not well suited for agriculture and as a result the kingdom sought frequent trade with its neighbors.  It is said that Balhae brought trade in East Asia to unprecedented levels.

Culture

Religion

Buddhism was actually not a dominant mode of thought in the early years of Balhae.  It wasn't until the rule of Emperor Mun that Buddhism really started to become popular.  It seems as though Buddhism became popular with all social classes and influenced much of the art in Balhae.  Taoism also seems to have played an important role in Balhae, which was likely the result of influence from Goguryeo and Tang.

Painting
As was the case with the three kingdoms, the only extant paintings are found on the walls of tombs.  The tomb of Princess Jeonghyo and the tombs at Sanlingtun provide the best examples of Balhae painting techniques.

Music
Music in Balhae was more than likely a mix of the music from Goguryeo and Mohe.  Japan has numerous records of Balhae music, the earliest of which dates to 740. 

Ceramics
Glazing came into use during the time of the Balhae Kingdom.

 Legacy

The culture in Balhae was apparently so advanced that China referred to the kingdom as the "flourishing land in the East."  However, the ultimate legacy of Balhae is as the last Korean state in Machuria.  Goryeo took over the Korean peninsula shortly after the fall of Balhae and controlled almost all of modern-day Korea, but nothing more.  From this point onward, Korean society would be constricted to the Korean peninsula.

North South States Period: Unified Silla (668 - 892)

The story of Unified Silla picks up right where the story of the Three Kingdoms ends.  Silla succeeded in conquering Baekje in 660 and Goguryeo in 668 with the help of their Tang allies.  How will Silla deal with this newly acquired power?  Will Tang overstay their welcome on the Korean peninsula?  Will the bone rank system continue to be a viable method of running a country?  What will be Silla's lasting impact on the Korean peninsula?

It should be noted that the term "Unified Silla" isn't completely accurate because Silla did not control the entire Korean peninsula, but rather only controlled slightly more land than modern-day South Korea.  Korea is currently divided at the 38th parallel and Silla's northernmost point was only slightly above the 39th parallel and it didn't include Pyongyang.  The Kingdom of Balhae controlled the northern portion of the peninsula and Balhae will be the topic of my next post.  The term "Unified Silla" arose after World War II with the division of the Korean peninsula.  Historians have recently begun to label the time period as the "North South States Period", which I feel is more accurate, but I also like "Unified Silla" because Silla did in fact conquer the other two kingdoms in Korea.  Hence, I have decided to use both terms in the title of this post.

Silla Crown

Foreign Relations

Protectorate General to Pacify the East

It turns out that the Tang Dynasty did not help Silla to conquer the other two kingdoms in Korea simply out of generosity.  They had the intention of ultimately bringing the entire Korean peninsula under Tang control.  Tang attempted to accomplish this task by first establishing five commanderies in the area of the former Baekje Kingdom after its fall and then subsequently placing nine commanderies in the territory of the former Goguryeo Kingdom after the unification was complete.  Tang also established the Protectorate General to Pacify the East ( 안동 도호부, or Andong Dohobu ) at Pyongyang in 668, with intention of controlling the peninsula from this location.  How did Silla respond to this act of subjugation by Tang?  By allying with the people they just conquered of course.

Silla Supports Goguryeo Revival
King Munmu ( 문무왕 ) supported the Goguryeo restoration forces, who were led by Geom Mojam ( 검모잠 ) and desired to appoint Anseung ( 안승 ) as the King of Goguryeo.  Geum Mojam was a military leader in Goguryeo prior to its fall and Anseung was supposedly the illegitimate son (or nephew) of King Bojang ( 보장왕 ), who was the last ruler of Goguryeo.  The two men sought permission from Silla to reestablish the Goguryeo state in 668 and Silla consented in 670 due to the ever-increasing pressure from Tang.  Silla presented Anseung with a small portion of land near modern-day Iksan (which was actually part of Baekje's old territory) and named him King of Bodeok.  Unfortunately, Geum Mojam's relationship with Anseung quickly deteriorated and Geum Mojam was assassinated in 672.  This revival movement ultimately proved to be short-lived as the kingdom was disbanded in 683 and Anseung went to reside in the Silla capital of Gyeongju.


Fighting Their Former Allies
Silla first sought to wrestle the southern portion of the peninsula from Tang control and accomplished this in 671 with the fall of Sabi fortress.  By conquering this fortress, Silla had successfully gained control of the area previously under the domain of the Baekje Kingdom.  Silla continued the arduous task of repelling Tang influence for 5 more years until Tang finally conceded and removed the Protectorate General to Pacify the East from Pyongyang.  Silla's forceful removal of Tang influence is considered one of the most important events in Korean history because it allowed Korean culture to evolve independently of Chinese control.


Realigned With Tang
The newly founded Kingdom of Balhae controlled the northern portion of Korea and southern parts of Manchuria, so naturally both Silla and Tang experienced confrontations with Balhae.  An alliance was formed between Silla and Tang in 733 to counter the growing threat of Balhae.  However, Balhae succeeded in forming diplomatic ties with people in northern China and Japan, thereby providing a deterrent to an attack by either Silla or Tang. 

Peace
The expulsion of Tang forces from the Korean peninsula marked the last major conflict during this time period.  Therefore, with the exception of the first few years of its existence, Unified Silla ruled over a time period of peaceful foreign relations.  This is a marked difference from the constant warfare during the Three Kingdoms Period and must have been a welcome relief for the citizens of these kingdoms.  Relations continued with Tang, Balhae, and Japan, but these were all in the context of trade rather than war. 

Power Shift

The Aristocrats Rebel
Apparently life was a little too peaceful on the Korean peninsula because in 768, almost 100 years after Silla's last major foreign battle, members of the aristocracy hatched a scheme to decrease the power of the throne and subsequently increase the power of the aristocracy.  The success of the coup was certainly aided by the fact that King Hyegong ( 혜공왕 ) was only 11 years old when the rebellion began.


What Actually Happened?
I came across two completely different accounts of the next couple years, so to be honest I am not sure what is in fact the true story.  Both stories claim that a man named Kim Yang-sang (later to be known as King Seondeok) held the position of sangdaedeung ( 상대등 ) under King Hyegong.  Sangdaedeung was the leader of the Hwabaek Council and considered to be the most powerful position in Silla other than King.  The story that I believe to be true states that Kim Yang-sang seized power in 774 before finally killing King Hyegong in 780 and taking the throne.  However, I did find an account which states that Kim Yang-sang actually led the royal forces against the rebels when they stormed the palace in 780, but then proceeded to take the throne after the rebels killed the king.  So in short, it is definitely true that Kim Yang-sang served as sangdaedeung and that he became king in 780, but the details under which he rose to power are unknown.

I Just Can't Wait to be King
This event was the beginning of what is traditionally known as "Late Silla", which is marked by a decrease in royal authority.  The shift of power to the aristocracy created an extremely chaotic atmosphere that ultimately led to Silla's downfall.  Silla descended into a society in which military might, rather than lineage, determined the right to rule.  The last 150 years of the Silla Dynasty witnessed 20 kings rise to the throne, none of which lasted more than 20 years and very few of which even made it to the double digits.

Late Silla

Decentralization
Well it seems that while the aristocrats were busy feuding amongst themselves in the capital city, they completely forgot about the fact that there was an entire country that needed to be governed.  Private trade with China and Japan had begun to flourish, and as a result wealthy merchants arose as powerful regional leaders around the country.  The rise of regional power finally united the aristocracy in a common goal, which was to maintain power over the country (honestly, I think the only reason for the coup that occurred earlier was because they hadn't had an enemy for so long and decided to create one).  The dispersion of power from the capital eventually resulted in regional power holders called "castle lords", who had their own military and exercised control over various areas of the country.  They even taxed the villages under their control, so they had in effect become separate entities and the ruling elite in Gyeongju held no real power over these areas.  

The Peasants Rebel

The dawn of taxes imposed by castle lords put quite a strain on the peasant population, as they were now responsible for taxes to the state and to their respective castle lord.  The lack of central control originally resulted in the government being unable to collect taxes from peasants in the regions controlled by castle lords, but in 889 the government attempted to forcefully collect the taxes.  This led to peasant revolts, which began in the Sangju area, located almost directly in the center of modern-day South Korea, and spread to virtually every other area of the country.  These rebellions eventually led to the founding of Later Baekje in 892 and Later Goguryeo in 901, which officially ended Silla's unification of the Korean peninsula.  

Government

Political Structure
The early years of Unified Silla witnessed a growth in the power of throne and therefore also a decrease in the power of the aristocracy.  The fight to increase royal authority was not easy and it even led to the deaths of many aristocrats who opposed the strengthening authority during the rule of King Sinmun ( 신문왕 ).  However, its ultimate result was a period of unprecedented peace during the first half of the 8th century.  This peace of course came to an end when aristocrats conspired against the throne in 768 and eventually succeeded in swinging the balance of power in their favor.  Although the eventual end would not come for another 150 years, this event ultimately led to the decentralization of power and the end of the Silla Kingdom.

Problems with Bone Rank
The advent of Confucianism exposed many faults in Silla's bone rank system.  Confucianism was centered around the idea that men of talent should be promoted within government based upon state examinations, which stood directly opposed to a bone rank system that promoted based upon lineage.  The members of head rank six, who were prevented from holding important government jobs because of their blood line, but had been allowed to attend the Confucian College, were the primary supporters of the Confucian movement.  These men were in fact given important jobs during the period of decreasing aristocratic power, but the break with the tradition of the bone rank system ended up being too radical of change for members of the upper class to accept.  Although the idea of promoting based on talent seems like an obvious policy today, Silla would ultimately end up living and dying by the bone rank system.

Economy
Prior to unification, government officials had been paid with "stipend villages", which allowed the officials to collect taxes and also control labor forces for their land.  However, this policy was changed in 689 and the officials instead began receiving "office land", which could only be taxed.  The original policy was later restored as the aristocracy began to gather more power.  There is actually an account which states that government officials owned as many as 3,000 slaves.  Unified Silla witnessed an amazingly large disparity between the rich and poor.  As has been the case throughout history, the greed of the aristocracy resulted in their downfall when they attempted to forcefully tax the peasants in 889 in order to maintain their own extravagant lifestyles.

Culture

Buddhism
Despite Silla's original reluctance to accept Buddhism as its formal religion, this mode of thought caught fire during Unified Silla and was the most popular religion among both the aristocracy and the common people.  There were many monks who made pilgrimages to India and China during this time, and as a result many different schools of thought emerged within Korea.  The most dominant of these among the aristocracy was the Avatamsaka, or Hwaeom as it is called in Korea, while the most popular amongst the common people was Pure Land Buddhism.  The most well known teacher from this time period was named Wonhyo, and his influence was widespread within Korea and even spread to neighboring countries.

Avatamsaka
So why was this sutra so popular with the ruling class?  More than likely it was due to the teaching that the one contains the multitude and the multitude is as one.  This seems like a pretty nice concept for a group of people attempting rule the country under one central authority. 

Pure Land
This doctrine taught that people did not need to understand the complicated doctrines and sutras in the Buddhist religion, but rather that it was enough to simply profess one's faith.  I'm sure that this came as a welcome teaching to a largely illiterate and uneducated populous.  Pure Land Buddhism also preached about the torment on earth and that people could be reborn into paradise.  

Wonhyo ( 워효 )
Wonhyo was a Buddhist teacher who lived in Silla during the seventh century.  He did not travel to either India or China like many of his contemporaries, but was still considered to be one of the most respected thinkers of his time period.  There is actually a story that states that Wonhyo was on his way to China with his friend, Uisang, when they were forced to take shelter in a tomb (although they did not know it was a tomb) during a storm.  Wonhyo became extremely thirsty during the night and found what he thought was a water source, so he took a drink.  He awoke in the morning to find that he had actually drank from a human skull and he became fascinated with the ability of the mind to alter reality.  Thereafter he abandoned the priesthood and his plans to go to China in order to spread the dharma.  Wonhyo's message primarily concentrated on condemning the animosity that existed between the various sects of Buddhism and focusing on the common beliefs between each school of thought.


Confucianism
Confucianism arrived in Silla during the seventh century and steadily evolved into a widespread thought process that would eventually challenge Buddhism and even the bedrock of Silla's society.  The first Confucian college was opened in 682 was primarily attended by members of head rank six within the bone rank system.  A state examination, which tested knowledge of the texts taught at the college, began in 788 and placement in certain government positions was determined by this test.  Supporters of Confucianism argued that this examination, rather than lineage, should be used to determine government placements.  The development of this test would ultimately challenge the bone rank system's method of government placement and create a rift in Silla's society.    


Arts

Architecture
The best examples of Silla architecture are found at Bulguksa (temple) and Seokguram grotto.  Although the original Bulguksa was destroyed during the Imjin war at the end of the sixteenth century, both of these locations are very well known historical sites in Korea.

Bulguksa - Completed 774 AD

Bells
Silla was actually very well known for their bronze temple bells.  The largest of these is rumored to have weighed over 300 tons, but it has not survived.  The largest surviving bell was cast in 711 AD and called the Emile Bell.  It can currently be found at the Gyeongju National Museum.  Silla's bells are generally considered to be unparalleled in either China or Japan.

Emile Bell

Poetry
As was the case in Silla prior to unification, the hyangga was the most popular mode of expression during this time.  Hyangga poems were written about religious practices (specifically Buddhism) with the purpose of bringing peace or wisdom to the state.  There was actually a compilation of hyangga called Sam Dae Mok ( 삼대목 ), which was produced at the end of the ninth century, but it has not survived.

Woodblock Printing
Texts began to be recorded using the woodblock printing process during this time period.  Korea is actually home to the world's oldest extant woodblock print, which is a copy of the Dharani sutra and was created earlier than 751.

The Three Kingdoms Period: Anything Besides War?

I have primarily focused my posts on the constant state of flux during the Three Kingdoms Period.  Each of the kingdoms was constantly trying to expand its influence, which led to numerous changes in the boundaries of each kingdom.  However, there was obviously a much more complex societal structure that existed within these boundaries.  My personal interest is mainly focused on wars and foreign relations (hence the reason I've focused my articles on these areas), but I would like to take at least one post to discuss the internal workings of these societies.

Culture

Religion

**Goguryeo**
Ancestor worship was the most important aspect of religion during the early period of Goguryeo's existence.  The people of Goguryeo worshiped their ancestors as gods and the most important of these ancestors were Goguryeo's founder, Jumong, and his mother, Yuhwa, who were worshiped annually during the Dongmaeng Festival, which was a harvest festival held in the tenth lunar month.  The citizens of Goguryeo believed in an afterlife consisting of a leisurely lifestyle and frequent rides upon dragons, cranes and giraffes.  In addition to ancestor worship, shamanism was also present during this time and Goguryeo's citizens worshiped numerous gods and participated in sacrifices and festivals in honor of these gods.  The religious landscape changed dramatically in 372 with the acceptance of Buddhism.  Goguryeo was the first of the Three Kingdoms to adhere to the religion and Buddhism continued to serve as the state religion until Goguryeo's demise in 668.

Baekje
Baekje was part of the Samhan in its early days, which believed in ancestor worship and shamanism.  The most unique part of the beliefs in the Samhan were the masters of ritual, who were called "Heaven princes", and had authority over a settlement called a sodo ( 소도 ).  The masters of ritual were responsible for seeking the favor of the gods and bringing good fortune to the Samhan states.  The sodo was a holy place and a criminal could not be apprehended if he entered the confines of the sodo.  Baekje proceeded to accept Buddhism shortly after Goguryeo in the year 384. 

Silla
Silla was originally part of the Samhan, and therefore had many of the same rituals and beliefs as Baekje.  The main difference between Silla and the other two kingdoms is that it accepted Buddhism about 150 years after its neighbors.  This seems strange considering the close proximity of the Three Kingdoms, but it was apparently the aristocracy that prevented the official adherence to the religion.  It should be noted that Buddhism had existed in Silla for about 100 years prior to its adoption in 527, but it wasn't until the martyrdom of Ichadon that Buddhism was finally named the state religion.

**Gaya**
A popular legend about Gaya's history claims that a princess named Heo from India married Gaya's first king, King Suro.  If this legend is in fact true, it is possible that Buddhism existed in Gaya from as early as 48 AD.  However, this legend is more than likely false, and even if it is true, there isn't any evidence suggesting widespread acceptance of Buddhism during this time period.  Buddhism more than likely came to Gaya through Silla, perhaps in the year 452 AD.  Buddhism still did not gain popularity during this time and it wouldn't succeed in winning over the public until shortly before Gaya's downfall.


Music and Poetry

Goguryeo
Song and dance were essential elements of worship during the early years of Goguryeo and festivals, such as the Dongmaeng Festival, included these elements for the purpose of ancestor worship.  Not very much is known about the specifics of Goguryeo's music, but a noteworthy instrument that comes from this period is the hyeonhakgeum ( 현학금 ), known as the "black crane zither", which was developed by Wang Sanak ( 왕사낙 ).

Baekje
Not much information has survived on Baekje's music, but there are records of Baekje musicians being sent to China and Japan, which indicates that Baekje probably had a sufficiently advanced musical culture.

**Silla**
The most famous poetry from Silla during this time period were the hyangga ( 향가 ), or "native songs", which were composed by the Hwarang.  The Hwarang were elite warriors who also participated in an extensive study of Buddhism.  For this reason, many hyangga songs have a religious message and show a transition from the shamanistic incantations of old to the new Buddhist belief system.  Unfortunately, very few of these poems have survived, but the ones that have lasted capture the essence of the war-torn time period.  The music in Silla was also deeply rooted in religion, as was the case with the other kingdoms. 

**Gaya**
Gaya's most well known cultural contribution to Korean society was the gayageum, which was supposedly made by King Gasil of Dae Gaya during the sixth century.  It is generally considered to be the most well known traditional Korean instrument.  After inventing the instrument, King Gasil enlisted the help of a musician named U Reuk to compose twelve original works.  Unfortunately, the musical scores of these works have been lost, but the record of their existence survives to this day. 


Art and Architecture

**Goguryeo (Painting)**
Most of the surviving paintings from Goguryeo exist on the walls of tombs.  Paintings from the early days of Goguryeo consist of simple portraits of the deceased, but tombs uncovered from the later years show a unique dynamic element to the paintings.  The lines and bold colors used in these paintings bring the images to life.
The only architectural pieces that exist from this time period are tombs (probably because all of the free-standing architecture was made of wood).  Goguryeo constructed two types of tombs: pyramidal stone tombs and earthen tombs that consisted of mounds of dirt piled on top of stone slabs.
The most famous sculpture from Goguryeo is a gilt bronze standing Buddha that is dated to 539.

Baekje (Sculpture)
The practice of painting tombs spread to Baekje from Goguryeo, but Baekje murals are considered to be more refined than those of their northern neighbors. 
Stone pagodas are the only remaining freestanding structures from Baekje and the two best examples can be found in Buyeo and Iksan.
Baekje sculptures have been highly praised and are known to have a more naturalistic style than the sculptures found in Goguryeo.  The most well known sculpture from Baekje is the gilt bronze meditating half-seated Maitreya.

**Silla (Jewelry)**
Unfortunately, very few paintings from Silla have survived, but the few that have suggest that Silla painters were as capable as the artists from neighboring states.
All of the wooden structures from Silla have been destroyed, but some of the best remaining stonework can be found in Silla's ancient capital of Gyeongju.
Silla sculptures are similar to those found in Baekje, but are considered to be more static and conservative.  Silla's seated gilt bronze Maitreya is housed in the National Museum of Korea in Seoul and is therefore the most well known piece.
The design of Goguryeo and Baekje tombs made them very easy to rob and for this reason very few artifacts from within the tombs exist today.  However, Silla's tomb design made grave robbing practically impossible, so many pieces have been recovered from the ancient tombs.  Some of the objects are made of pure gold and include crowns, shoes, earrings, rings and bracelets.  Many of these also incorporate gemstones and truly symbolize the powerful royal authority that was held by the ruling family. 

Gaya (Metalwork)
Very few pieces of Gaya's art have survived to this day.  Some jewelry has been discovered and the findings include many gold ornaments.  However, Gaya's true claim to fame was its iron-working skill.  Gaya exported its ironwork around the entire region and this one very important skill was the primary reason that Gaya was able to maintain its independence for so many years.

Society and Politics

Language and Writing

**Goguryeo**
Very few words from Goguryeo's language are known today, but the few that do exist suggest that it was very similar to Silla's language.  It was also influenced Tungusic languages spoken by people in Siberia and Manchuria.  There has been a lot of debate about the actual classification of the language, but most linguists label it as part of the Altaic language family, which includes Turkic, Mongolic and Tungusic languages.  As was the case with all of the kingdoms, Goguryeo used the Hanja writing system, which consisted of Chinese characters.

Baekje
Baekje's language is thought to have been similar to Goguryeo's.  There has actually been an effort to establish the Buyeo language family, which would consist of the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Dongye, Okjeo, and Baekje.  The close relationship to Goguryeo's language probably resulted from the fact that Baekje was founded by a Goguryeo prince. 

Silla
Silla is the only one of the Three Kingdoms that has left behind a considerable amount of writing.  For this reason, much more is known about Silla's language than the languages of the other kingdoms and researchers have actually used Silla's language in an attempt to understand the languages of Baekje and Goguryeo.  Silla's language would more than likely be placed in Buyeo language family.

Gaya
Not very much information on this, but since Gaya was positioned between Baekje and Silla, I would say it is fair to assume that the language was rather similar.  There may have been a substantial amount of Japanese influence on Gaya's language due to their consistent trade with Wa.


Economy


**Goguryeo**
As stated in previous articles, Goguryeo existed on a barren landscape that was for the most part unsuitable for farming.  This was Goguryeo's primary reason for expansion and the state eventually transformed into an agriculturally based economy once it acquired new lands.  A particularly significant aspect of Goguryeo's agricultural system was the policy called jindae-beop ( 진대법 ), which allowed farmers to borrow grain in the spring and then repay it in the fall after the harvest.  This policy was very popular and attracted many farmers from neighboring states.  Trade, ironworking and tribute were also important for Goguryeo's economy.

The Rest
Agriculture was the most important industry in all of the kingdoms.  Irrigation systems were created in Baekje and Silla in order to support rice farming, while Goguryeo grew dry crops such as millet and soybeans.  There were obviously other sources of income such as fishing, ironworking and tributary payments, but agriculture represented the most important source of wealth in each of the kingdoms.


Social Structure

Goguryeo
The social structure in Goguryeo consisted of four classes, which included the king, aristocrats, commoners and slaves.  The royal line was controlled by the Go ( 고 ) house and the aristocrats were made up of powerful families in the capital.  Of course, commoners made up a majority of the population and the slaves consisted primarily of prisoners of war.

Baekje
The same basic classes existed in Baekje, but there are in fact records of the most powerful families in Baekje.  The royal line was passed down through the Buyeo ( 부여 ) clan and there were apparently eight very powerful families that controlled the aristocracy.

**Silla**
Silla has the most historical documentation regarding social status.  Silla again consisted of the four main social classes, but the most interesting aspect of Silla's society was the bone rank system (golpum jedo or 골품제도 ), which separated different levels of the aristocracy.  The highest level of this system was originally seonggol ( 성골 ), or "hallowed bone", which consisted only of people within the royal line who could become king.  However, this rank was eliminated by King Muyeol in 654, just prior to the Silla unification.  The next highest rank was jingol ( 진골 ), or "true bone", which was made up of the rest of the royal house of Kim, the Bak family, the Seok family, and later a separate Kim lineage from Geumgwan Gaya was awarded the rank as well.  Prior to King Muyeol's reign, true bone aristocrats could hold any position other king, and after the reign of King Muyeol even the kingship was open to them.  The next three ranks were called dupum ( 두품 ), or head ranks, with head rank six holding the highest position and head rank four being the lowest level of the aristocracy.  Head ranks three, two and one are not documented, but more than likely made up the common people in Silla's society.  The bone rank system controlled virtually all parts of Silla's society, from the job that a person was permitted to have, to the size of someone's house, and even extended to the color of robes worn by officials.

Gaya
Kingdoms within Gaya never developed a fully centralized authority.  Prior to Silla's annexation of Gaya, some of the more powerful states were beginning to develop central power, but Silla's interference occurred before this could fully develop.  An interesting aspect of the class system within Gaya was the existence of a religious class called cheongun ( 천군 ), which performed rituals necessary to appease deities. 


Political Systems

Goguryeo
There were twelve aristocratic office ranks in Goguryeo, the most powerful of which was daedaero ( 대대로 ), or chief minister.  The chief minister was elected by a council consisting of members of the high aristocracy.  There were also five hyong ( 횽 ), or elder brother, ranks, which consisted of chieftains from the states that had previously made up the kingdom of Goguryeo. 

Baekje
Baekje had sixteen political ranks and these were separated into three distinct groups.  The highest group consisted of the top six ranks and members within this group wore purple robes.  The highest position in this group was jwapyeong ( 좝영 ) and an election was held every three years in which members of this group would vote on the position.  The next group consisted of ranks seven through eleven and people in this group wore scarlet robes.  The final group was made up of the rest of the ranks and members of these ranks wore blue robes.

**Silla**
Silla had seventeen office ranks, which corresponded to the bone rank system presented above.  The bone rank system was based on lineage, so the family into which a person was born determined how high they could rise in government.  All seventeen positions were open to members of true bone rank, while only twelve positions were open to those born as head rank 6, only eight positions were open to head rank 5 and six positions were open to head rank 4.  This was a very rigid system in which no one, regardless of merit, was permitted to rise above their social standing.

Gaya
Lots of debate on this one, because if Gaya did in fact have hierarchical system it would provide a good deal of evidence suggesting that Gaya was in fact a kingdom during this time period.  It is fairly obvious that during the early Gaya period the confederation did not have a central state.  However, there has been evidence to suggest that Dae Gaya constructed a Bu (부) system in the late Gaya period that resembled the system in Silla.  If this was in fact the case, it would mean that Dae Gaya had become powerful enough to control the other states in the confederation and in effect form a kingdom. 


Law

Laws in each of the Three Kingdoms appear to be extremely strict.  The only definitive laws I could find from the time period actually came from Buyeo, but it is generally assumed that the laws of the Three Kingdoms were similar during the early years of their existence.  The four laws that have survived from Buyeo are as follows:

1. Anyone who kills another will be put to death and his family will be enslaved
2. Anyone who steals will be forced to repay their victims twelve times over
3. Women who commit adultery will be put to death
4. A jealous wife will be put to death and her body will be left to rot in the mountains

Similar laws probably existed in the Three Kingdoms until the introduction of Buddhism.  The laws were rewritten in the fourth and fifth centuries to reflect the impact of Buddhism on these societies.

Foreign Relations

Relations With China

**Goguryeo**
Not very good to say the least.  Seeing as how Goguryeo was the largest of the Three Kingdoms and situated right next to China, it's not surprising that Goguryeo was constantly competing with various Chinese kingdoms for regional supremacy.  Goguryeo fought against the Wei Dynasty, the Chinese Commanderies in Korea, the Yan Dynasty and the Sui Dynasty before finally falling to an alliance between Silla and the Tang Dynasty.

Baekje
Baekje was a frequent trade partner with China and also occasionally paid tribute to China.  Baekje also sought an alliance with China after it was betrayed by Silla in the sixth century.  Some historians also support the idea that Baekje may have controlled portions of modern-day China during the peak of its expansion at the end of the fourth century and beginning of the fifth century.

Silla
Silla was positioned farther away from China than the other two kingdoms and for this reason it did not have much interaction with China until Silla was able to conquer the Han river valley in 551.  Relations with the Tang dynasty improved to the point that Silla and Tang became allies and were able to conquer the Baekje and Goguryeo kingdoms.

Gaya
Gaya's advanced metallurgy techniques and location allowed it to participate in frequent trade with China.


Relations With Japan

Goguryeo
Goguryeo was not in close proximity to Japan and the only significant conflict between the two nations occurred in the year 400 when an alliance of Baekje, Gaya and Wa (Japan) forces threatened to invade Silla.  Silla called upon Goguryeo for help and Gwanggaetto the Great responded with 50,000 troops and easily defeated the Wa forces.  Japan returned to Korea in 404 and fought Goguryeo near Pyongyang, but Goguryeo was again victorious.  

**Baekje**
Baekje had extremely close relations with Japan.  Many members of the royal family went to live in Japan and the two countries participated in frequent trade.  Japan even participated in the attempted revival of Baekje after its fall to the Silla-Tang alliance, but were unsuccessful in their quest.

Silla
Silla participated in frequent trade with Japan, but the two countries had uneasy relations for most of the Three Kingdoms Period.  Wa seems to have maintained closer relations with Baekje and Gaya than with Silla, so the frequent clashes between the various kingdoms hurt relations between Silla and Japan.

Gaya
As was the case with China, Gaya frequently traded with Japan.  Gaya even allied with Japan in the year 400, but this ended in defeat for both nations.


Alliances

Goguryeo - Silla ( 377 - 427 )
This alliance developed due to the increasing power of the alliance between Baekje, Gaya and Wa.  Silla felt threatened felt threatened by the growing power of these forces and called upon Goguryeo for assistance.  The most significant event in this relationship took place when Goguryeo sent 50,000 troops to aid Silla in the year 400.

**Baekje - Silla ( 433 - 551 )**
This relationship arose due to Goguryeo's unceasing desire to expand its territory.  Goguryeo moved its capital to Pyongyang in 427, which alerted Baekje and Silla to the threat of Goguryeo's southern expansion.  In order to thwart any southern movement by Goguryeo, the two southern states formed an alliance.  The most important battle that took place during this alliance occurred in 474 when Goguryeo invaded Baekje and Silla sent troops to rescue the Baekje kingdom. 

Goguryeo - Baekje ( 551 - 660 )
All good things must come to an end.  The Baekje-Silla alliance ended after 127 years when Silla betrayed Baekje after a battle with Goguryeo.  The Baekje-Silla alliance was able to defeat Goguryeo and take over the Han river valley in 551, but after the battle Silla turned against their ally and took the land for itself.  Goguryeo and Baekje now had a common cause in defeating Silla and therefore banded together, but the alliance would ultimately end in failure when Silla succeeded in uniting the Korean peninsula.

Sources

A New History of Korea by Ki-baik Lee

Goguryeo - Proud History of Korea

Koreana Quarterly

Korean Paintings

Britannica

Korean Culture

Social Class / Economy

Gaya's Social Structure by Taesik Kim

Gaya's political system

Korea-Japan Relations